How Coordinated Capitalism Adapts to the Knowledge Economy: Different Upskilling Strategies in Germany and Switzerland

The rise of the knowledge economy challenges coordinated models capitalism by requiring their skill formation systems to produce a workforce with higher skills. This paper examines how adapts upskilling pressures jointly studying general education and vocational training (VET) at both upper-secondary tertiary levels. Employing comparative research design covering German Swiss efforts over past 50 years, we observe important differences. Switzerland, influential small firms weak union presence, focuses on keeping VET an attractive option level favoring graduates' access education. By contrast, Germany, marked large firm dominance unions, concentrates expanding throughout adding elements later. Our analysis suggests that firms' reform preferences are conditioned size political constraints reform. Der Aufstieg der wissensbasierten Wirtschaft stellt koordinierte Marktwirtschaften vor die Herausforderung, ihre Bildungssysteme so weiterzuentwickeln, dass diese Arbeitskräfte mit höheren Qualifikationen hervorbringen. In diesem Beitrag wird anhand von Reformen allgemeinen und beruflichen Bildung auf Sekundarstufe II sowie Tertiärstufe untersucht, wie dieser Herausforderung umgehen. Ein Vergleich deutschen schweizerischen Reformbemühungen letzten Jahre zeigt deutliche Unterschiede auf. Die Schweiz konzentriert sich den Erhalt Attraktivität Berufsbildung II, indem sie Zugang Berufsbildungsabsolventen zur tertiären fördert. Im Gegensatz dazu fokussiert Deutschland Zugangserweiterung zu allgemeinbildenden Schultypen fügt erst anschliessend berufsbildende Elemente hinzu. unterschiedlichen bildungspolitischen Entwicklungen lassen durch Reformpräferenzen beteiligten Unternehmen ungleiche Anpassungsfähigkeit Berufsbildungssysteme erklären. L'essor de l'économie la connaissance remet en question les modèles coordonnés capitalisme exigeant que leurs systèmes d'éducation professionnelle produisent une main-d'œuvre plus qualifiée. Cet article examine manière dont le coordonné s'adapte aux pressions d'amélioration des compétences étudiant conjointement l'enseignement général et au niveau secondaire supérieur tertiaire. En utilisant un modèle recherche couvrant l'Allemagne Suisse cours cinquante dernières années, nous observons différences importantes. La Suisse, avec petites entreprises influentes faible présence syndicale, se concentre sur maintien l'attractivité du deuxième cycle favorisant l'accès diplômés à supérieur. revanche, l'Allemagne, marquée par domination grandes l'influence syndicats, l'expansion tout long scolarité professionnelles n'interviennent tard. Notre analyse suggère préférences matière réforme sont conditionnées leur taille contraintes politiques qui pèsent réformes. L'ascesa dell'economia della conoscenza rappresenta una sfida per i modelli di capitalismo coordinato poiché richiede adattare sistemi formazione professionale produrre forza lavoro con competenze più elevate. Questo studio esamina come paesi che hanno sviluppato si adattano pressioni riqualificazione e considera congiuntamente sia l'istruzione generale il livello secondario superiore terziario. Con ricerca comparativa paragona politiche dei educativi tedeschi svizzeri negli ultimi anni, argomentiamo due riformano in modo differente. Svizzera, caratterizzata da influenti piccole medie imprese debole presenza sindacale, cerca mantenere un'opzione attrattiva superiore, favorendo l'accesso diplomati istituti professionali all'istruzione terziaria. Al contrario, Germania, dominata grandi sindacati, concentra sull'espansione dell'istruzione sull'aggiunta elementi professionalizzanti avanti nei percorsi formazione. nostra analisi suggerisce differenti preferenze riguardo riforma professionale, quali dipendono dalle loro dimensioni dai vincoli politici legati alle riforme. As liberalization globalization challenge non-market coordination, jury is still out future capitalism. We study its resilience focusing intersection between labor markets systems, area where coordination among employers traditionally most visible but challenged “knowledge economy” (Diessner al., 2022; Thelen, 2014). term refers growing reliance information instead physical inputs or natural resources for economies grow (OECD, 1996; Powell & Snellman, 2004). Knowledge have emerged from revolution communications technology 2000s, which fostered high-technology investments, deindustrialization, triggered shift manufacturing high-value-added services (Hall, 2020). increased premium high skills exerts pressure employment structures systems. To secure adoption new technologies, businesses increasingly require college degrees occupations used depend school diplomas. reaction demands, governments encourage upskilling, providing (future) employees more advanced (Durazzi, 2023). It involves retraining, facilitating (higher) academic education, creating tailored opportunities vocationally trained people learn competencies. crucial understand market economies, not least because role social inclusion. justified associating levels economic benefits, this has diminished standing VET, associated “old” economy's demand anymore (Abrassart Wolter, Nevertheless, benefits also been pursued through “as avenue working-class youth could move into well-paid jobs” (Thelen, 2014, p. 10). Therefore, assess changes inequality, need system. Since literature generally equated increasing enrollments, particularly challenging capitalism, whose relies detriment (Iversen Soskice, 2019; Wren, 2013). However, argue complex than extension enrollments. can occur it take place level. means university enrollments schools provide pupils university-entrance educational institutions (e.g., universities applied sciences, UASs). Thus, see act as one carries distributive implications top-down imposition.1 “upskilling strategies” countries strong components comparative-historical analysis. choose timeline 1970s until 2020s although configured themselves “mature” only 2000s 2020), reforms path-dependent, meaning broader timeframe context. case selection follows similar design. relevant variables characterizing cases relate economies' vulnerability economy-related adaptability From perspective, Germany Switzerland they prototypical firm-based focus (Ebner, 2013; Hassel Palier, Due export orientation real exchange rates, must constantly adapt changing conditions moving up value chain (Sorge Streeck, 2018). point view countries' feature dual model apprenticeship combining school-based learning. These involve associations financing administration training, leading portable, certified, standardized occupational (Busemeyer Trampusch, 2012). Hence, historically relied argued struggle economy. empirical documents similarities two strategies. share attending Gymnasium) countries, become less popular, whereas (i.e., apprenticeships) remained addition, growth relates UASs. significant cross-national differences indicate strategies prioritize different elements. upskills mainly system, kept baccalaureate features institutionalized pathways graduates mostly levels, while added later stages path. before obtaining additional training. offer tentative explanation these differences, emphasizing unions' veto players. nutshell, system flexible enough be reformed order upskill. rigid incentivizes rely outside makes contributions. Conceptually, adopt encompassing approach considering connections junctures find proportion occurs nexus well innovative paths education). While existing rarely done so, fields considered together. Empirically, undertook major data collection effort temporal patterns gathering enrollment multiple sources. online appendix provides complete list sources further details process. Although other studies compiled attainments across time Weber 2010) Ebner Nikolai, 2010), do detail each path comparatively. our represent, knowledge, extensive detailed documentation youth. proceeds follows. next section reviews offers some preliminary theoretical reflections account subsequent assessment integrating statistical review policy developments. then A final concludes. transformation topic considerable research. separates (academic) degrees, and, within each, treats separate compartments (Baethge 2015). On hand, typically discusses i.e., (Brown 2012; Ornston, Schulze-Cleven 2017). disregards post-secondary (exceptions include Culpepper, 2007; Di Maio Durazzi, Attention devoted remain socially inclusive (Bonoli Emmenegger, 2021; Durazzi Geyer, link realms made, consequence know relatively little about reach holistic understanding comprehensively address all VET. takes policies simplify transitioning locating precisely connection points. Upskilling mean things. varieties scholarship assumes symbiotic relationship sector, service 2014; examples high-quality export-led regime (Hassel 2020, 40), expected upskill comparatively low universities. Iversen Soskice (2019) “industrial production digitalized, decentralized, dependent workers cognitive analytical skills, causing […] rise, important” (p. 180). expect witness (2023) reconciles views arguing rather wholesale turn should emphasis layered pushed upskill, continue narrow needs, concentrated areas such engineering (Herrigel, likely VET.2 Similarly contributions collective explain variation historical-institutionalist framework Graf, 2018; 2010). consider institutional rules principal factors structuring behavior generating distinctive outcomes (Hall Taylor, 1996, 937). acknowledges conflict rival groups lies heart politics highlights context conflicts place. Mahoney Thelen (2009) define terms discretion awarded agents change interpreting possibilities status quo defenders. potential innovation flexibility reinterpreting rules, when actors extra-institutional block change. Moreover, line Comparative Political Economy, unions change, given stakes deny relevance parties (cf. Busemeyer, party positions informed links producer Especially regimes, pivotal substantial part intermediary participate (Busemeyer, Furthermore, structural enduring explanatory accounts emphasize short-term fluctuations goals time. What employers' training? Even though cost sensitive, specific train largely depends needs. tends differentiate versus firms, cleavage subsumes array beyond number employees. Large ones larger profit margins, face international competition, export-oriented, stronger discursive power For reasons, argues, conceive differently firms. working graduates, better positioned screen prospective force retain best candidates. Training is, thus, way prepare pre-selected often recruit externally. them which, thanks corporatist wage compression, quite cheap (Culpepper 2008; repercussions comes preferences. Most notably, broad applicability tasks occupations, known opposed technical demanded According literature, there three main reasons this. First, competition ones. Second, put functional flexibility, ability functions same firm. Third, concerned poaching aware attractiveness Emmenegger Seitzl, 1991; condition vis-à-vis formation. general, providers employment, say overall adequacy Carstensen Ibsen, 2021). absent action, weight make heard extent (Emmenegger 2019). cooperate independently (Graf, Consequently, clear preference center any strategy, what source skilled (Trampusch, satisfy needs look traditional confines Importantly, many advantages ones, allows exercise formal control differ adapting Some hierarchically organized structured, leaving room reinterpret align give innovate, redefine contents requirements, add demanding programs. If does allow shortages options cater ways might requirements redeploy context, certainly player. repeatedly emphasized constrain freedom choices beneficial (Streeck, 1997), prompting individual maximization costs (Acemoglu Pischke, 1999; 2020; Marsden, 1999). limit words, constitutes powerful point, others, imply strategies? Based review, push reforming suit provision opportunities, cheaper own awards reforms. degree influence interaction players who may enable opportunity purposes upskilling. accommodated, lack power, it. if instance, sufficient national partnering institutions) hire graduates. Finally, expects prefer modest primarily achieved usually create Like accommodated unconstraining unions. section, document developments 2020s. structure discussion along first similarities, namely institutions. Then, highlight notably Both several key features. shares students strongly (especially women). At level, Gymnasium), prepares entrance, consists either full-time apprenticeships occupations. Figures 1 (Germany) 2 (Switzerland) show tracks figures trend onwards, started 1950s, especially after so-called “Sputnik shock” 1957, highly increase, coincided women's catch-up process attainment. Over last 45 attendance Gymnasium grew 25% 39% students. continues, nearly half will 2040. Similarly, doubled 14% 1976 27% 2019. cases, expense pronounced almost halved 1975 2019, 29% 17%. decline steep significant. 17% 1970s, today 13% attend stable time, being attended around 45% 60% students.3 since 1960s (see Figure 3). was encouraged laws restricting self-governance already 1960s, made quantity enrolled significantly jump 1970s. regular steadily 18,492 1958 85,940 1990. expansion became driven UASs 50% 1972 1978, 1978 1988, continued following decades. absolute numbers, UASs' 400,000 1990 million 2015. less, 1.3 1.7 period. recent actively public funds (Durazzi Benassi, Hüther Krücken, introduced 1997 strengthen overcome perceived (Gonon, 1994, Despite lukewarm support medium-sized concerns, 68% 2000 2005 (12% universities) 32% 2010 (10% universities). Their inception satisfied (Culpepper, colleges wanted upgrade (Gonon Maurer, parallels approaches Fundamentally, rates Switzerland. 4 compares numbers entering total population aged 20–29 years. considerably expand twenty entrants doubled, equivalent factor 2.4. During period, 1.2 1.4. Germany. Instead, focused maintaining achieves baccalaureate, suggested Science Council (1992) alternative rapidly (Criblez, 2001; Gonon, 1994). addition direct pass practice year enter UASs, studying, exam (Passarelle). originally depicted “15/15” solution, 15% age cohort were supposed pursue another baccalaureate. Today, approximately 40% baccalaureates